France Quiztime: Why Have I Posted...

[PKeating]

...this photograph of African-American soldiers in the French section? The photo, by the way, is from NARA.

[Naxos]

Could it be because of a certain helmet in the picture?

Hardy

[Ulsterman]

no-it's because they served in French units.

[Kev in Deva]

Because its a rare picture of

US Coloured troops who fought in France in WW1,

returning by ship from France to their homes in New York??

Kevin in Deva.

[PKeating]

You're both pretty close so I'll give you half a point each! These are members of the 15th New York Infantry (National Guard), redesignated 369th R?giment d'Infanterie US, who fought under French command because none of Pershing's commanders would accept Black troops. Their home nickname was The Black Rattlers, after the regimental shoulder flash depicting a rattlesnake but they are more commonly remembered by the nickname given to them by the Germans: Hell Fighters or Harlem Hell Fighters.

This series of photographs, taken as Kev points out, on the troopship as it reached New York, the photographer having come out on the pilot boat, is a marvellous example of how some photographers back then were already capturing moments in a very spontaneous way. Unlike the rigid portraits and studies one is used to from this period, these men are very much alive. There were also some colour photographs, which have a more solid look to them than the captivating but ethereal French colour shots of the time. I'll post one or two later.

I wonder if that German helmet is still in some house on the Upper East Side of Manhattan... One thing is fairly sure: the man clowning with it didn't buy it or win it in a poker game miles behind the lines! The 369th is said to have been the most highly decorated of the US units in France in 1917 and 1918. They were the longest in the front line, at one point the only unit between the Germans and Paris and were the first Allied unit to reach the Rhine in 1918. One of them, Henry Johnson, was the first American to win the Croix de Guerre avec Palme, which was not often awarded in one go to a frontline grunt.

And their regimental band gave tens of thousands of ordinary French - and German - people their first experience of jazz...

PK

[Dave Danner]

The unit patch of the soldier on the far right is that of the 93rd Division, a black disc with a blue French Adrian helmet. In World War I, the regiments of the 93rd Division never fought as a single unit. Instead, they were attached to French Army divisions (hence the choice of patch design). However, there was another all-black division, the 92nd Division, which fought as a division under IV Corps and VI Corps.

The 369th Infantry was attached the 161e division d'infanterie from July to November 1918, and participated in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive as part of that division. The 369th was a good unit, but it was not the most decorated U.S. unit in the war. It was not even the most decorated in the 93rd Division. The 371st Infantry, which also fought in the Meuse-Argonne as part of the 161e division d'infanterie, was composed mainly of draftees with mostly white officers. It earned one Medal of Honor and 19 Distinguished Service Crosses, compared to the 369th's 10 DSCs. Soldiers of both regiments, as well as the 370th (an Illinois National Guard unit) and the 371st (draftee), also earned numerous Croix de Guerre and a number of Legions of Honor. The 371st also took (and probably inflicted) more casualties than any of the other black regiments.

Pictured below are Major J.R. White, Lt. Col. Otis B. Duncan, and 1st Lt. William J. Warfield. Warfield's DSC was earned as part of L Company, 370th Infantry Regiment. He was cited "for extraordinary heroism in action near Ferme-de-la-Riviere, France, September 28, 1918. Although separated with his platoon from the company, First Lieutenant Warfield continued to lead a stubborn resistance against enemy machine-gun nests, successfully capturing a gun and killing the crew. After having been severely wounded, he still continued in command, refusing relief until his objective was reached."

[Dave Danner]

Here is Sergeant William Butler, a Harlem Hellfighter of L Company, 369th Infantry Regiment. He received the Distinguished Service Cross "for extraordinary heroism in action near Maison-de-Champagne, France, August 18, 1918. Sergeant Butler broke up a German raiding party which had succeeded in entering our trenches and capturing some of our men. With an automatic rifle he killed four of the raiding party and captured or put to flight the remainder of the invaders."

[Dave Danner]

Soldiers of the 370th Infantry (formerly 8th Illinois Infantry) with a mix of CdGs and DSCs.

[Dave Danner]

Below are several officers of the 92nd Division, which adopted the buffalo as its patch in honor of the Buffalo Soldiers, the Army's regular "Colored" regiments. They are 1st Lt. C.L. Abbott, Capt. Joseph L. Lowe, 2nd Lt. Aaron R. Fisher, and Cpt. E. White.

Lt. Fisher's DSC was "for extraordinary heroism in action near Lesseux, France, September 3, 1918. Lieutenant Fisher showed exceptional bravery in action when his position was raided by a superior force of the enemy by directing his men and refusing to leave his position, although he was severely wounded. He and his men continued to fight the enemy until the latter were beaten off by counterattack." He served in the 366th Infantry.

[PKeating]

The 369th got a CMoH too! 1st Lt George S Robb won it near S?chault. African-Americans, of course, were barred from receiving it at the time although it had been awarded to African-American soldiers during the Indian Wars and, I believe, the Civil War. There was a new racism abroad in the corridors of power. There has always been a rivalry between the 369th and 371st. Regarding the question of which regiment won the most awards, perhaps we shall never know. I will have to consult my period copy of Emmett J Scott's 1919 book as I seem to recall that he mentioned it therein. I think the tally at the time included French decorations as well.

Butler's action would have won him a CMoH were it not for the Color Bar. The same goes for Henry Johnson, whose surviving son, a Tuskegee airman, continues to lobby for the CMoH for his father. The Clinton administration awarded a posthumous Purple Heart, followed by a DSC under the new Bush administration. But no CMoH for Johnson: the Pentagon clearly felt that Clinton had retro-awarded too many CMoH to Blacks. It is quite ironic, really, that almost ninety years later, Henry Johnson still isn't getting the CMoH he surely earned...because he was black.

OK, that's one way of looking at it and I am sure the Pentagon doesn't agree. In fact, I know they don't agree because they b1tched about an article I wrote about Johnson when I made that rather wry remark. But still...

PK

[PKeating]

Dave,

Thanks for showing these photos. I have to go out but will post more later. Here's the 370th photo in the original colour. It's not colorized but is actually a colour photograph, no doubt enhanced in the lab but still fairly natural-looking. This is scanned from the 1919 book I mentioned. The images in the book are all photographic prints as opposed to dot matrix repros. This is just a low res scan, though.

PK

[joe campbell]

absolutely fascinating accounts.

i had heard of this unit, but the pictures

and details bring this relatively unsung

band of brothers to life.

my thanks to PK and dave!

joe

[PKeating]

Here's another scan from the 1919 book. I believe this was taken in the camp at Spartanburg before the 15th entrained for new York and France. Young soldiers are getting baptised, just in case. The image is, IMO, colorized but it is an extraordinary sight. Similar scenes occured in France during the regiment's training period with the 4eme Arm?e.

PK

[PKeating]

Taken near Givry-en-Argonne, this French Army photograph shows Harlem Hellfighters, as they would become known, parading for inspection just after being issued with French helmets, equipment and weapons, which they wear with their American uniforms. They would shortly move into the front line after a brief training period.

[PKeating]

Here is Sergeant William Butler, a Harlem Hellfighter of L Company, 369th Infantry Regiment. He received the Distinguished Service Cross "for extraordinary heroism in action near Maison-de-Champagne, France, August 18, 1918. Sergeant Butler broke up a German raiding party which had succeeded in entering our trenches and capturing some of our men. With an automatic rifle he killed four of the raiding party and captured or put to flight the remainder of the invaders."

How Sergeant Butler Won the D. S. C.

On authority of General Pershing, Colonel Hayward himself presented the Distinguished Service Crosses to the heroes among his regiment. Then, from the hands of General Collardet, of the French Army, he received the medal of the Legion of Honor. But even among this list of distinguished heroes those who knew of the exploits of Sergeant "Bill" Butler insisted upon calling for him and making him the object of their attentions.

It was on the night of August 12, 1918, while the fighting was raging in the Champagne District, that Sergeant Butler's opportunity came to him. A German raiding party had rushed the American trenches and, after firing a few shots and making murderous use of the short trench knives and clubs carried for such encounters, had captured five privates and a lieutenant. The victorious raiders were making their way back to their own trenches when Butler, occupying a lone position in a forward post, saw that it would be necessary for the party to pass him.

The Negro sergeant waited until the Germans were close to his post, then opened fire upon them with his automatic rifle. He kept the stream of lead upon the raiders until ten of their number had been killed. Then he went forth and took the German lieutenant, who was slightly wounded, a prisoner, released the American lieutenant and five other prisoners, and returned to the American lines with his prisoner and the rescued party.

Under the heading, "Trenton Has Nothing on Salisbury," The Afro-American of Baltimore said: "Trenton, New Jersey, may have her Needham Roberts, but it takes Salisbury, Maryland, to produce a William Butler. Roberts had his comrade, Henry Johnson, to help him in repulsing a raiding party of Germans, but Butler took care of a German lieutenant and squad of Boches all by himself. Herbert Corey, a white newspaper correspondent, in telling of the incident said that Butler came 'a-roaring and fogging, through the darkness with his automatic, and 'nobody knows how many Germans he killed.' It was for this that General Pershing awarded him the Distinguished Service Cross recently and the citation read: 'Sergt. William Butler, Company L, 369th Infantry (A. S. No. 104464). For extraordinary heroism in action near Maison de Champagne, France, August 18, 1918. Sergeant Butler broke up a German raiding party which had succeeded in entering our trenches and capturing some of our men. With an automatic rifle he killed four of the raiding party and captured or put to flight the remainder of the invaders. Home address, Mrs. Jennie Butler, Water Street, Salisbury, Maryland.'

"The rest of the State of Maryland and the whole United States now has its hat off to Butler of Salisbury."

And the New York Tribune, on April 28, 1919, said: " 'Bill, Butler, a slight, good-natured colored youth, who until two years ago was a jack-of-all-trades in a little Maryland town, yesterday came into his own as a hero among heroes. More than 5,000 men and women arose to their feet in City College stadium and cheered themselves hoarse while representatives of two Governments pinned their highest medals upon the breast of the nervous youth. Sergeant Butler was one of a list of twenty-three members of the famous 15th Regiment upon whom both France and the United States conferred medals of honor because of extraordinary heroism on European battlefields. But by common consent his name comes first on the list a list that was made up only after a careful comparison of the deeds of gallantry that finally resulted in the breaking of the Hun lines."

SCOTT'S OFFICIAL HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN NEGRO IN THE WORLD WAR BY EMMETT J. SCOTT, AM., LL.D. Special Adjutant to Secretary of War

Edited June 3, 2007 by PKeating

[PKeating]

The 369th Infantry was attached the 161e division d'infanterie from July to November 1918, and participated in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive as part of that division. The 369th was a good unit, but it was not the most decorated U.S. unit in the war. It was not even the most decorated in the 93rd Division. The 371st Infantry, which also fought in the Meuse-Argonne as part of the 161e division d'infanterie, was composed mainly of draftees with mostly white officers. It earned one Medal of Honor and 19 Distinguished Service Crosses, compared to the 369th's 10 DSCs. Soldiers of both regiments, as well as the 370th (an Illinois National Guard unit) and the 371st (draftee), also earned numerous Croix de Guerre and a number of Legions of Honor. The 371st also took (and probably inflicted) more casualties than any of the other black regiments.

The 371e RIUS won a total of twenty-two Distinguished Service Crosses, with ten to commissioned ranks and twelve to enlisted ranks. In addition, they also won a L?gion d?Honneur and a total of 123 Croix de Guerre in various grades. I don?t have the DSC tally for the 369e RIUS to hand but 171 officers and men of the regiment were awarded the Croix de Guerre for the September 1918 offensive alone. At least three L?gion d?Honneur were also awarded. In addition, the 369th was awarded the Croix de Guerre as a regiment. The 369th won other Croix de Guerre for earlier actions so they trump the 371st. Both regiments had a Medal of Honor winner so they were even on that score. These figures vindicate the popular claim that the 369th was the highest decorated American unit of WW1, even if the American War Office decided at one point to become miserly with medals for ?negroes? because too many of them were being recommended for valour! As for casualties inflicted on the Germans, I don't think there was much in it between the 369th and 371st.

They both performed magnificently as combat units, even when they were forced to accept barely trained draftee replacements, which had a bad effect on unit morale. As a result, they proved a considerable embarrassment to those within with army command structure whose policies and attitudes were heavily influenced by white supremacism during this period. As I said, it is generally accepted that many DSC recommendations were turned down because too many African-Americans were winning America's second-highest bravery award, the CMoH being closed to them at the time. However, the French were not influenced by the same kind of racism. Even if they tended to see Blacks as cannon fodder - although the conduct of some African regiments and American units like the 369th and 371st did much to change these attitudes - they did believe in giving credit where due, so I would be more inclined to accept the tally of Croix de Guerre as a reliable yardstick.

PK

[Dave Danner]

Emmett Scott's book is readable online: http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/comment/Scott/ScottTC.htm

[Dave Danner]

The 369th got a CMoH too! 1st Lt George S Robb won it near S?chault. African-Americans, of course, were barred from receiving it at the time although it had been awarded to African-American soldiers during the Indian Wars and, I believe, the Civil War. There was a new racism abroad in the corridors of power. There has always been a rivalry between the 369th and 371st. Regarding the question of which regiment won the most awards, perhaps we shall never know. I will have to consult my period copy of Emmett J Scott's 1919 book as I seem to recall that he mentioned it therein. I think the tally at the time included French decorations as well.

Butler's action would have won him a CMoH were it not for the Color Bar. The same goes for Henry Johnson, whose surviving son, a Tuskegee airman, continues to lobby for the CMoH for his father. The Clinton administration awarded a posthumous Purple Heart, followed by a DSC under the new Bush administration. But no CMoH for Johnson: the Pentagon clearly felt that Clinton had retro-awarded too many CMoH to Blacks. It is quite ironic, really, that almost ninety years later, Henry Johnson still isn't getting the CMoH he surely earned...because he was black.

OK, that's one way of looking at it and I am sure the Pentagon doesn't agree. In fact, I know they don't agree because they b1tched about an article I wrote about Johnson when I made that rather wry remark. But still...

PK

I do not believe there was a policy barring African-Americans from receiving the MoH, but the racism from President Wilson down through much of the Army hierarchy was certainly an impediment. At least four recommendations were made, with Freddie Stowers' being "misplaced" and three others downgraded to the DSC.

There were a number of awards in both the Civil War and the Indian Wars. The Army also awarded 5 Medals of Honor to cavalrymen of the 10th Cavalry during the Spanish-American War. Along with one from the Apache Wars, Buffalo Soldiers of the 10th Cavalry earned 6 Medals of Honor. Black soldiers of the 10th's sister cavalry regiment, the 9th Cavalry Regiment, earned 11 Medals of Honor in the Indian Wars. White officers of the 9th and 10th Cavalry earned another 6 Medals of Honor in the Indian Wars.

The 371e RIUS won a total of twenty-two Distinguished Service Crosses, with ten to commissioned ranks and twelve to enlisted ranks. In addition, they also won a L?gion d?Honneur and a total of 123 Croix de Guerre in various grades. I don?t have the DSC tally for the 369e RIUS to hand but 171 officers and men of the regiment were awarded the Croix de Guerre for the September 1918 offensive alone. At least three L?gion d?Honneur were also awarded. In addition, the 369th was awarded the Croix de Guerre as a regiment. The 369th won other Croix de Guerre for earlier actions so they trump the 371st. Both regiments had a Medal of Honor winner so they were even on that score.

This is what I have for DSC statistics for the 93rd Division's regiments:

369th Infantry

1. Butler, William, SGT, August 18, 1918, Maison-de-Champagne
2. Earl, Elmer, CPL, September 26, 1918, Ripont Swamp
3. Johnson, Henry, SGT, May 13-15, 1918, Argonne
4. Landon, Harold M., 1LT, September 29, 1918, Sechault
5. McCowin, Elmer, PVT, September 26, 1918, Ripont Swamp
6. McLoughlin, Comerford, 1LT, September 26, 1918, Ripont
7. Pickering, Woodell A., LTC, September 26-October 1, 1918, Champagne
8. Shethar, Samuel, CPT, September 26-October 1, 1918, Champagne
9. Spencer, Lorillard, MAJ, September 26, 1918, Champagne
10. Walton, Edward A., 1LT, September 16, 1918, Ripont

370th Infantry

1. Barnes, Robert, SGT, September 19, 1918, Mont de Singes
2. Crawford, William B., CPT, September 30, 1918, Ferme-de-la-Riviere
3. Davis, Leroy, PVT, September 18, 1918, Mont-de-Sanges
4. Fuquay, James, PVT, September 28, 1918, Guillemet Farm
5. Gibson, Ralph, SGT, November 8, 1918, Beaume
6. Irby, Spirley E., PVT, November 8, 1918, Beaume
7. Jackson, Rufus B., 2LT, September 28, 1918, Farm La Folie
8. Jenkins, Mathew, SGT, September 20, 1918, Vauxaillon
9. Johnson, Arthur, PVT, September 30, 1918, Mont des Singes
10. Monroe, Charlie T., SGT, September 24, 1918, Mont-de-Sanges
11. Powell, Tom, PVT, November 8, 1918, Beaume (posthumous)
12. Thompson, Emmett, SGT, September 20-October 1, 1918, Mont-de-Sanges
13. Valley, Isaac, CPL, July 22, 1918, Vraincourt
14. Warfield, William J., 1LT, September 28, 1918, Ferme-de-la-Riviere
15. White, Nathaniel C., PFC, September 19, 1918, Vauxaillon (posthumous)

371st Infantry

1. Bryson, Samuel R., 1LT, September 29, 1918, Champagne
2. Cooper, Thomas, SGT, September 30-October 2, 1918, Trieres Farm
3. Cope, Tobe C., MAJ, September 3, 19180, Trieres Farm (posthumous)
4. Diggs, Junius, PVT, September 30, 1918, Ardeuil
5. Gilmer, Robert A., 2LT, September 30, 1918, Trieres Farm (posthumous)
6. Hammond, LeRoy H., CPT, September 28 & 29, 1918, Ardeuil
7. Holmes, Burton, PVT, September 28, 1918, Hill 188 (posthumous)
8. Jones, Sandy E., CPL, September 28-29, 1918, Champagne
9. Lesesne, Francis K., CPT, September 29, 1918, Ardeuil
10. Moses, Ellison, PVT, September 30, 1918, Ardeuil
11. Parker, Charles W., 2LT, September 29-October 1, 1918, Ardeuil
12. Pate, Joseph B., MAJ, September 28, 1918, Meuse-Argonne
13. Ranson, John O., 1LT, September 30, 1918, Ardeuil (posthumous)
14. Richey, William R., Jr., CPT, September 29-30, 1918, Ardeuil
15. Shepherd, Marion H., CPT, September 29-30, 1918, Ripont
16. Spencer, Edward L., 2LT, September 30, 1918, Ardeuil
17. Stewart, Malley, PVT, September 29, 1918, Bussy Farm
18. Teer, Hubert O., 1LT, September 29, 1918, Ardeuil
19. Vinton, Thomas W., 1LT, September 29-October 1, 1918, Ardeuil

372d Infantry

1. Crawford, Clifford, PVT, September 28-29, 1918, Bussy Farm
2. Gross, George, PVT, September 29, 1918, Sechault (posthumous)
3. Hames, William W., 1LT, September 28-29, 1918, Bussy Farm
4. Johns, Samuel H., PVT, September 28, 1918, Bussy Farm
5. Johnson, Samuel M., MAJ, September 27, 1918, Bussy Farm
6. Merrimon, Clifton, CPL, September 27, 1918, Bussy Farm
7. Payne, Ira M., SGT, September 29, 1918, Sechault
8. Robison, Edward M., CPT, October 1-3, 1918, Monthois
9. Sessions, Harry C., 2LT, September 28-29, 1918, Bussy Farm
10. Sumner, Charles S., CPT, September 28-29, 1918, Bussy Farm
11. Van Allen, Clarence R., PVT, September 28, 1918, Bussy Farm
12. Walsh, Preston F., 1LT, September 27-October 7, 1918, Monthois
13. Wilson, Harvey W., 2LT, September 28-29, 1918, Bussy Farm

It is not a criticism to the bravery of the soldiers of these regiments, but they were far from the most decorated U.S. Army regiments. The most decorated were among the following:

• 4th Infantry, 3rd Division ? 1 Medal of Honor recipient, 68 DSC recipients; Croix de Guerre with Gilt Star unit citation
• 9th Infantry, 2nd Division ? 2 Medal of Honor recipients, 136 DSC recipients; 3 Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citations, Croix de Guerre fourragere
• 16th Infantry, 1st Division ? 152 DSC recipients; 2 Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citations, Medaille Militaire fourragere
• 23rd Infantry, 2nd Division ? 89 DSC recipients; 3 Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citations, Croix de Guerre fourragere
• 26th Infantry, 1st Division ? 97 DSC recipients; 2 Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citations, Medaille Militaire fourragere
• 28th Infantry, 1st Division ? 3 Medal of Honor recipients, 126 DSC recipients; 2 Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citations, Croix de Guerre fourragere
• 30th Infantry, 3rd Division ? 72 DSC recipients; Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citation
• 38th Infantry, 3rd Division ? 89 DSC recipients; Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citation
• 60th Infantry, 5th Division ? 2 Medal of Honor recipients, 40 DSC recipients
• 101st Infantry, 26th Division ? 1 Medal of Honor recipient, 57 DSC recipients
• 102nd Infantry, 26th Division ? 80 DSC recipients
• 103rd Infantry, 26th Division ? 1 Medal of Honor recipient, 49 DSC recipients
• 107th Infantry, 27th Division ? 5 Medal of Honor recipients, 81 DSC recipients
• 117th Infantry, 30th Division ? 3 Medal of Honor recipients, 70 DSC recipients
• 118th Infantry, 30th Division ? 6 Medal of Honor recipients, 58 DSC recipients
• 119th Infantry, 30th Division ? 3 Medal of Honor recipients, 70 DSC recipients
• 125th Infantry, 32nd Division ? 81 DSC recipients; Croix de Guerre with Palm unit citation
• 131st Infantry, 33rd Division ? 2 Medal of Honor recipients, 94 DSC recipients
• 132nd Infantry, 33rd Division ? 5 Medal of Honor recipients, 48 DSC recipients
• 165th Infantry, 42nd Division ? 3 Medal of Honor recipients, 97 DSC recipients
• 167th Infantry, 42nd Division ? 1 Medal of Honor recipient, 65 DSC recipients
• 307th Infantry, 77th Division ? 2 Medal of Honor recipients, 44 DSC recipients
• 308th Infantry, 77th Division ? 5 Medal of Honor recipients, 97 DSC recipients
• 356th Infantry, 89th Division ? 4 Medal of Honor recipients, 27 DSC recipients

Note that the regiments here from 101st to 167th are National Guard regiments, and I don't have most of their lineage and honors. Some of them may have received French unit citations like the regular regiments (1-65).

Regarding the Croix de Guerre, you cannot compare awards of the Croix de Guerre to the DSC and Medal of Honor. France awarded well over 2,000,000 Croix de Guerre in World War I, including about 12,000 to Americans. There were 95 Army Medals of Honor and 6,309 Distinguished Service Crosses. The most analogous U.S. award to the Croix de Guerre was the Silver Citation Star, which later became the Silver Star medal. It was patterned after the Croix de Guerre in that the citations could be made at different levels of command (albeit only those of at least general officer command, so no regimental awards), but unlike the Croix de Guerre, there was no use of different devices to indicate the level of command at which the soldier was cited. Estimates are that there were about 100,000 to 150,000 Silver Citation Stars, which given the difference in numbers of troops who fought in the war, compares relatively well to the 2 million or so Croix de Guerre.

I don't have a regimental breakdown for Silver Citation Stars. According to the guy who runs the ddaymilitaria site and compiles the indexes to medals for various units, the 1st Division received 16,132. I would expect that the majority of these went to men of the 4 infantry regiments (16th, 18th, 26th and 28th). As noted above, the 16th, 26th and 28th Infantry Regiments were some of the most decorated units of the war (and the 18th Infantry received 42 DSCs, 2 CdG with Palm unit citations and the Medaille Militaire fourragere).

[PKeating]

Emmett Scott's book is readable online: http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/comment/Scott/ScottTC.htm

It is indeed but that version is a substantially abridged edition of the original. It's okay from an academic viewpoint but it is not as Scott wrote it.

PK

[Dave Danner]

It is indeed but that version is a substantially abridged edition of the original. It's okay from an academic viewpoint but it is not as Scott wrote it.

PK

Good to know. Thanks!

I checked and it appears the full book is available on Google Books here: http://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ

American users can access it, and maybe UK users, but apparently fear of copyright issues keeps Google from making these online books accessible elsewhere.

[PKeating]

I do not believe there was a policy barring African-Americans from receiving the MoH, but the racism from President Wilson down through much of the Army hierarchy was certainly an impediment. At least four recommendations were made, with Freddie Stowers' being "misplaced" and three others downgraded to the DSC.

It depends upon how one defines "policy", Dave. I spent three years researching this area of history for a screenplay - close to completion - and if it looks like a duck, walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, old chap, then it's a duck. There was no written rule, as far as I know, stating that "negroes shall not receive the Congressional Medal of Honor". After all, that would have been unconstitutional! But there was a policy in application and it was enthusiastically enforced by a military high command that bought into the neo-racism raising its head throughout the United States at the time. Wilson was not so much responsible for this as simply one of its disciples. It was gaining footholds after the Spanish-American War, before Wilson was even a candidate, and would last until after WW2, when right-minded soldiers' soldiers like James Gavin did much to end segregation in the army by including the 555th PIR on the ORBAT of the 82nd Airborne Division.

Regarding the Croix de Guerre, you cannot compare awards of the Croix de Guerre to the DSC and Medal of Honor. France awarded well over 2,000,000 Croix de Guerre in World War I, including about 12,000 to Americans. There were 95 Army Medals of Honor and 6,309 Distinguished Service Crosses. The most analogous U.S. award to the Croix de Guerre was the Silver Citation Star, which later became the Silver Star medal. It was patterned after the Croix de Guerre in that the citations could be made at different levels of command (albeit only those of at least general officer command, so no regimental awards), but unlike the Croix de Guerre, there was no use of different devices to indicate the level of command at which the soldier was cited. Estimates are that there were about 100,000 to 150,000 Silver Citation Stars, which given the difference in numbers of troops who fought in the war, compares relatively well to the 2 million or so Croix de Guerre.

To say that that the CdG was not worth much because over 2m were awarded during the 1914-1918 war is a bit like saying that the Iron Cross 2nd Class was given out with the breakfast rations, both in the First and Second World War. I agree that the Croix de Guerre seems to have been generously awarded but one has to take into account the French penchant for subtle distinctions. A French soldier awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm at the same time can be said to have been awarded France's highest decoration for military valour in the face of the enemy. The CdG with Palm was somewhat more illustrious than a CdG with a Bronze Star. As with the Germans, the important component of the award is the document. French infantrymen received the CdG with Palm for actions that would have netted them a DSC or perhaps even a CMoH were they Americans. Officers sometimes received a L?gion d'Honneur but the LdH was, even by then, disdained by professional soldiers because there was no outward distinction between an award for, say, administrative services to the nation and an award for bravery on the battlefield. The CdH was the soldiers' medal and remains so. A l?gionnaire today values his CdG TOE far more highly than anything else, the Croix de la Valeur Militaire included, even though the latter, instituted in the '50s, is supposed to be the higher award.

I'd still say that when one takes into account the administrative hurdles placed in the way of all recommendations for valour awards from African-American units once the high command realised that African-American soldiers were making a mockery of the canard that Blacks did not make good combat soldiers, it becomes apparent that their medals were harder won. Perhaps the journalists and writers of the time, like Scott and, I think, Roosevelt - the one who was KIA in 1944 - over-egged it with the "highest-decorated unit" plaudits but they were doubtless conscious of the "hobbling" of the African-American units in terms of awards.

One can quote statistics until the moon turns blue - don't get me wrong, they have their uses - but they are not really a true reflection in situations where one group of potential recipients was subject to rigorous discrimination on racial grounds. One simply cannot say that, if I might employ hyperbole for a moment, The 10th Ivy League Scouts was a better unit than The 20th (Colored) Upstarts because the former got more DSC recommendations rubberstamped by their father's town and country club friends in high places!

PK

Edited June 4, 2007 by PKeating

[Dave Danner]

To say that that the CdG was not worth much because over 2m were awarded during the 1914-1918 war is a bit like saying that the Iron Cross 2nd Class was given out with the breakfast rations, both in the First and Second World War. I agree that the Croix de Guerre seems to have been generously awarded but one has to take into account the French penchant for subtle distinctions. A French soldier awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm at the same time can be said to have been awarded France's highest decoration for military valour in the face of the enemy. The CdG with Palm was somewhat more illustrious than a CdG with a Bronze Star. As with the Germans, the important component of the award is the document. French infantrymen received the CdG with Palm for actions that would have netted them a DSC or perhaps even a CMoH were they Americans. Officers sometimes received a L?gion d'Honneur but the LdH was, even by then, disdained by professional soldiers because there was no outward distinction between an award for, say, administrative services to the nation and an award for bravery on the battlefield. The CdH was the soldiers' medal and remains so. A l?gionnaire today values his CdG TOE far more highly than anything else, the Croix de la Valeur Militaire included, even though the latter, instituted in the '50s, is supposed to be the higher award.

You are putting words into my mouth. I did not say the CdG "was not worth much". I said that the CdG was not directly comparable to the DSC, but was more analogous to the Silver Citation Star. The numbers quoted, and the same could be applied to the EK, are relative to the number of troops who saw combat. 2 million CdGs or 2 million EKs (or whatever the number was in WW1) was in the context of the millions of French and German soldiers who saw combat. Because the number of U.S. troops who saw combat in France was smaller (about 1,390,000) than the 8,000,000 or so French soldiers, and because the French were in the war much longer and thus had more repeat awards, the 100,000 to 150,000 Silver Citation Stars seems to represent a fair analogy to most CdGs. You are free to add DSCs to Silver Stars if you think many CdGs could be compared to many DSCs. I would also add M?dailles militaire, though, since for French enlisted soldiers that is generally considered the highest bravery award. One could easily quibble over whether a particular CdG avec Palme meant more than a M?daille militaire, but the MM was the higher medal in the French ODM. One could easily quibble over many a DSC or Silver Star, too. What a more senior officer like Douglas MacArthur got his Silver Stars for might have been considered routine for a private, who'd have nothing to show for it. Reading through the citations from the American Expeditionary Force and War Department (the levels of command closer to that of the palme for the CdG), I can see a wide variance of what the acts were, but that's a story repeated by every army in every war.

[PKeating]

I'm not putting words into your mouth, Dave. I'm merely expressing a logical interpretation of what you wrote. I don't know why this is becoming such an issue. I'm just trying to tell you how Frenchmen see it. Here's an extract from an article I wrote about Henry Johnson last year:

Instituted on April 8 1915, the Croix de Guerre was the only decoration awarded by France in World War One purely for valour on the battlefield. It was awarded to individuals of any rank who distinguished themselves by heroism in combat against enemy forces and also to anyone mentioned in dispatches for bravery in action. Subsequent acts of bravery on the part of recipients earned a bronze star for Regimental and Brigade citations, a silver star for Divisional citations, a gold star for Corps citations and a bronze palm leaf for Army citations. A common soldier of lowly rank from the mud and filth of the trenches sporting the Palme de Bronze on his green and red ribbon, like Private Henry Johnson, was a man to be treated with the greatest of respect.

According to just about every French military history buff and every French veteran I know, the general view is that a French enlisted man who was awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm as a single award had received France's highest military award for bravery in the face of the enemy. The M?daille Militaire does not represent the same thing and nor does the L?gion d'Honneur. A CdG with Palm in one go is worth much more in terms of cachet than a CdG with Bronze or Silver Star or a M?daille Militaire, which was not generally awarded to grunts although it was awarded posthumously after WW1 to a number of enlisted KIAs and MIAs who had been awarded the CdG.

Henry Johnson's action should have netted him at least a DSC at the time but no American awards were forthcoming until the 1990s. The French awarded him their highest available honour: the Croix de Guerre with Palm. Of the 2m or so CdG awarded from 1915 to 1918, I think you would find that relatively few involved awards to ground troops of the CdG with Palm at the same time. One could say that the French award system was lacking in options as the Croix de Guerre was really the nation's only award reserved for acts of military valour. The shortcomings of this situation can be seen when one looks at the air ace Guynemer's Croix de Guerre, with its plethora of stars and palms on a ribbon so long as to be unwearable to all practical intents and purposes.

Be all that as it may, a CdG with Palm like the one awarded to Henry Johnson can be described as the French equivalent of the American Distinguished Service Cross or even the Medal of Honor. I know this is probably hard to understand. I have perhaps an unfair advantage in that I have lived in France for more than ten years. I am merely telling you how the French view these awards. Bear in mind, too, that the value of the award really lies in the citation, in the recognition of the act for which the award was given. The document is the award. Some staff officers certainly received the CdG with Palm for mentions in Army orders and dispatches without actually doing much for it but when an ordinary soldier, a grunt, got it, it really stood for something special.

PK

Edited June 4, 2007 by PKeating

[Dave Danner]

I realize this is just a clash of contrarian personalities who enjoy a good internet give-and-take.

It should have been clear from my first round of posts both the extent of my knowledge and the level of my respect for what black soldiers endured through the course of American military history. I have served under, served with, and commanded black soldiers in the U.S. Army. A few years ago, I began the outline of a novel dealing with a young 10th Cavalry trooper who fought on San Juan Heights with Black Jack Pershing and in the Philippines, and then, after leaving the Army and attending college, returned as one of the relatively few black officers in the Army during World War I. That's one reason why I had saved all those pictures from the Archives and from Emmett Scott's book, to find ways of better expressing the characters.

The whole point of the medal dispute is this: you had stated that the 369th was said to have been the most highly decorated of the US units in France in 1917 and 1918. I noted that while the 369th had certainly earned its share of awards (even if the ones they earned never came), they were far from the most highly decorated U.S. unit. That distinction belongs the regiments of the U.S. divisions that spent the most time on the line, especially the regular regiments of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Divisions (as well as the Marine Corps brigade of the 2nd Division), certain National Guard regiments, especially those of the 26th, 27th and 42nd Divisions, and certain National Army units, especially the 77th. I noted the numbers of the highest awards and, where known, the French unit citations the regiments earned.

Nowhere did I "say that that the CdG was not worth much": those were the words you put in my mouth. I merely dispute that the CdG is the reliable yardstick, unless one also considers the Silver Citation Star, a citation specifically patterned by the U.S. Army after the CdG. Citing the number awarded was, as I explained above, to better place in context the numbers of DSCs and Silver Citation Stars relative to the number of U.S. troops in the war, and the numbers of CdGs relative to the far greater number of French troops in the war and the longer period of time they had been fighting.

For that matter, in placing the CdGs and other decorations of the 93rd's regiments in context with awards of other U.S. Army infantry regiments, one also should consider the CdGs and other French decorations awarded to these other regiments. They earned far fewer than the 93rd's regiments, but that was mainly because they primarily operated under U.S. command. The 356th Infantry of the 89th Division, for example, earned 4 Legions of Honneur, two Medailles Militaire, and 24 Croix de Guerre. One of those Medailles militaire was earned by Harold Johnston, a Medal of Honor recipient; the other by Clyde Dewalt, a DSC recipient.

Of course, one officer of the 356th is emblematic of the conflicted history of black soldiers in the U.S. Army. Then-1st Lt. Arthur S. Champeny of the 356th Infantry earned the DSC, the Ld'H, and the CdG in France. In World War II, he earned a second DSC, making him one of a select group of multiple DSC recipients. In Korea, he earned a third DSC. In the history of the U.S. Army, only 20 soldiers have earned 3 or more DSCs, and Champeny is the only man to earn them in three different wars. However, for all of Champeny's personal courage and combat leadership skills, he has tarnished his reputation by his poor leadership of the 24th Regimental Combat Team in Korea, still a segregated unit at the time, and by his blaming much of the failures of his unit on the alleged poor combat capabilities of black soldiers.

Anyway, I have no further interest in arguing over this. As noted, I have agreed with you from the beginning that the experience of black soldiers in the First World War was shamefully long underreported and disrespected. Similarly, the elevation to legend of Teddy Roosevelt's volunteer cavalry on San Juan Heights , and the consequent denigration of the role of the regular cavalry and infantry, especially the Buffalo Soldiers, was another shameful chapter.

[PKeating]

I realize this is just a clash of contrarian personalities who enjoy a good internet give-and-take.

To some extent, perhaps. But I wouldn't argue with you just for the sake of being argumentative: I respect your intellect and breadth of knowledge too much for that!

It should have been clear from my first round of posts both the extent of my knowledge and the level of my respect for what black soldiers endured through the course of American military history.

It was quite clear to me that you had more or, rather, have more than a passing interests in black soldiers throughout American military history. I think you are probably more knowledgeable than I am, because I have tended to focus on a couple of quite narrow topics within that history.

The whole point of the medal dispute is this: you had stated that the 369th was said to have been the most highly decorated of the US units in France in 1917 and 1918.

Yes, indeed, I chose my words carefully! I avoided parrotting the claim and confined myself to remarking that the 369th "was said" to have been thus. Perhaps I should have used "alleged", but it would have seemed a bit odd.

I noted that while the 369th had certainly earned its share of awards (even if the ones they earned never came), they were far from the most highly decorated U.S. unit. That distinction belongs the regiments of the U.S. divisions that spent the most time on the line, especially the regular regiments of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Divisions (as well as the Marine Corps brigade of the 2nd Division), certain National Guard regiments, especially those of the 26th, 27th and 42nd Divisions, and certain National Army units, especially the 77th. I noted the numbers of the highest awards and, where known, the French unit citations the regiments earned.

The 369th was also "said" to have been in the front line for the longest unbroken period of time spent on front line duty by any American unit in WW1: 191 consecutives days. Was this an exaggeration as well?

Nowhere did I "say that that the CdG was not worth much": those were the words you put in my mouth.

I did not suggest that you said this.

I merely dispute that the CdG is the reliable yardstick, unless one also considers the Silver Citation Star, a citation specifically patterned by the U.S. Army after the CdG. Citing the number awarded was, as I explained above, to better place in context the numbers of DSCs and Silver Citation Stars relative to the number of U.S. troops in the war, and the numbers of CdGs relative to the far greater number of French troops in the war and the longer period of time they had been fighting.

The Silver Citation Star (Inst. 1918) which was worn on appropriate service medal ribbons could perhaps be viewed as an American equivalent to the Croix de Guerre with Silver or Bronze Star but not the Croix de Guerre with Palm when awarded to a ranker for a single ground action. Comparisons are invidious, however, given the differing criteria between armies. It is probably fair to say that US awards - for whites at any rate - were easier won than equivalent awards for other Allied soldiers who had by then been at war for three years. Actions that brought, say, a British soldier a Military Medal at Loos might not have brought him the same degree of recognition by 1918.

Of course, one officer of the 356th is emblematic of the conflicted history of black soldiers in the U.S. Army. Then-1st Lt. Arthur S. Champeny of the 356th Infantry earned the DSC, the Ld'H, and the CdG in France. In World War II, he earned a second DSC, making him one of a select group of multiple DSC recipients. In Korea, he earned a third DSC. In the history of the U.S. Army, only 20 soldiers have earned 3 or more DSCs, and Champeny is the only man to earn them in three different wars. However, for all of Champeny's personal courage and combat leadership skills, he has tarnished his reputation by his poor leadership of the 24th Regimental Combat Team in Korea, still a segregated unit at the time, and by his blaming much of the failures of his unit on the alleged poor combat capabilities of black soldiers.

It was rather mean-minded of Champeny. He ought to have known better.

Anyway, I have no further interest in arguing over this. As noted, I have agreed with you from the beginning that the experience of black soldiers in the First World War was shamefully long underreported and disrespected. Similarly, the elevation to legend of Teddy Roosevelt's volunteer cavalry on San Juan Heights , and the consequent denigration of the role of the regular cavalry and infantry, especially the Buffalo Soldiers, was another shameful chapter.

Indeed it was. But not everyone overlooked the magnificent behaviour of the 9th and 10th Cavalry at San Juan Hill. Nor were the soldiers of the 24th Infantry overlooked. Even Teddy Roosevelt made a point at the time of giving them their due. His initial order for the assault on the hill was only heard by half a dozen soldiers anyway. Roosevelt had to turn back and muster a proper attack force, which only reached the Spanish positions towards the end of the battle. "There was very great confusion at this time, the different regiments being completely intermingled?white regulars, colored regulars, and Rough Riders.", said Roosevelt.

Anyway, basically we agree when it comes to black soldiers in American military history. FYI, I have served with, served under and commanded black soldiers myself, albeit as a lowly corporal, and I can tell you that they tend to be as overlooked and disdained in British military history as in yours. It is something that has always rankled with me. I'm not black but I might as well have been as an Irish kid in London at the end of the 1960s! If nothing else, the Irish owe the West Indians and Africans from former British colonies quite a debt for taking the heat off us...

Of course, it's cool to be Irish in Britain now. It's almost cool to be Black too. But I can't remember seeing any memorials to Black and Irish volunteers in the two World Wars.

PK